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The world of 3D printing encompasses various methods and materials. Based on different forming principles and materials used, here is a classification of the mainstream 3D printing technologies available today.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology, also known as material extrusion, uses filament materials as its raw material, keeping the semi-fluid molding material just above its melting point. Under computer control, the nozzle moves in the X-Y plane following CAD slicing data, extruding the semi-fluid filament. The molten material is coated onto the build platform and cools to form a cross-sectional layer of the workpiece. After one layer is formed, the nozzle moves up by one layer height and applies the next layer, stacking layer by layer to form a 3D printed object.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) technology was initially proposed by the University of Texas at Austin and later commercialized by DTM Corporation in 1992. SLS technology uses a carbon dioxide (CO2) laser as the energy source, and primarily utilizes various powder materials. The SLS printing process begins by spreading a thin, even layer of powder on the build platform. Under computer control, a laser beam selectively sinters the powder according to the cross-sectional contour of the part. Once a layer is completed, new powder is spread for the next layer. After all sintering is finished, excess powder is removed, and final treatments like polishing and drying yield the final part.
The process principle of Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is basically the same as SLS. This technology mostly uses a mixture of different metal powders, where components compensate for each other during sintering to ensure high precision. SLM requires a high-power density laser to rapidly melt the metal powder and is a highly promising technology for 3D printing metal parts. Materials typically include austenitic stainless steel, nickel-based alloys, titanium-based alloys, cobalt-chromium alloys, and precious metals. The rapid melting achieves full metallurgical bonding, creating nearly fully dense and highly precise metal parts of almost any shape.
Stereolithography (SLA) uses liquid photosensitive resin as its raw material. Following the predetermined cross-sectional contours generated by a computer, an ultraviolet (UV) laser scans the liquid resin point by point. This triggers a photopolymerization reaction in the scanned area, solidifying it into a thin layer. Once a layer is cured, the build platform moves, and a fresh layer of liquid resin coats the cured surface for the next scanning step, adhering firmly to the previous layer. This process is repeated until the entire object is formed.
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), or sheet lamination, works by using a laser or knife to cut and stack thin sheet materials layer by layer to form a 3D solid object. It typically uses materials like paper, plastic film, or composite foils. A laser cuts the inner and outer contours of the cross-section on a sheet coated with hot-melt adhesive. A feeding mechanism then places a new sheet on top, which is pressed and bonded to the previous layer using a heated roller before being cut again. LOM is often used for creating molds, models, and sometimes direct structural parts.
Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP), closely related to Binder Jetting, is similar to the SLS process as it also uses powder materials. However, instead of using a laser to sinter the powder, a print head deposits a liquid binding agent (such as silica gel) onto the powder bed to "print" the cross-section. Parts bonded this way initially have lower strength and usually require post-processing (like infiltration). 3DP can process a wide range of materials, including gypsum, plastic, ceramic, and metal, and allows for full-color printing. The unbound powder acts as natural support, enabling complex internal geometries.
Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which includes multi-layer laser cladding, is primarily used for manufacturing blanks of large metal parts. It utilizes a laser or another energy source to synchronously melt material (wire or powder) as it is deposited from a nozzle. The molten material solidifies to form a solid layer, stacking sequentially to build a 3D part. While DED has relatively lower forming precision, its build volume is virtually unrestricted, making it ideal for large-scale manufacturing and repairing existing metal parts.
Following intensive research and development, Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is now widely used in rapid prototyping, manufacturing, tooling, and biomedical engineering. EBM utilizes a high-energy electron beam in a vacuum environment to melt metal powder layer by layer, generating fully dense parts. Known for its ability to directly process highly complex geometric shapes with excellent mechanical properties, the EBM process is perfectly suited for the direct mass production of complex, small-batch components.
The 3D printing industry is constantly evolving with new concepts and breakthroughs. Other notable processes include Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS), Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP), and various hybrid manufacturing technologies pushing the boundaries of speed and material capabilities.